Victorian England and Natural History

Victorian England and Natural History Victorian society is a time characterized by the rule of Queen Victoria in England, during the years 1837 to 1901. In the years leading up to it, ideas surrounding natural history began changing, and they were brought to a head by scholars in Victorian times. With more discoveries of fossils, interest in natural history and dinosaurs increased. Scientific study of dinosaurs and the history of the world increased and began to be a true avenue of research and discovery. Before the Victorian era, there were many beliefs that were held. Through scientific discovery these beliefs were tested and changed. Science and natural history gained popularity throughout the Victorian era and led to changing beliefs of the society as a whole, when scientific discoveries contradicted established beliefs. Before Darwin and the theory of natural history, religious beliefs were considered to be the natural order of things. Throughout the seventeenth and eighteenth century, religious beliefs needed to be reconciled with nature so that natural theology could be studied. In general, the natural world was understood through the Bible and was built upon faith rather than science (Thompson, 2008). Science is different from faith, because it has no connection to the upper power. It searches for the truth and begets change, which threatens religious beliefs. There were Christian beliefs that were accepted as truth, including a greater chain of being, a young Earth, and species are immutable (Thompson, 2008). All of these beliefs were tested by scientific discoveries of the Victorian era. Another important scientific creation pre-Victorian England was that in the eighteenth century, Linnaeus created a system for classifying the natural world. This system showed a transition from an ignorant, uns tructured view of the past to a way of understanding species in relation to each other (Ritvo, 1997). By the Victorian period, classification was necessary to the understanding of natural history and Linnaeuss method was generally accepted as the nomenclature that would be used. While the system of taxonomy did have some inconsistencies and ambiguous rules, it persisted and was used in practice when naming new species. Victorian England was characterized by a growing industrial economy and a growing and valued middle class. According to James Camerini, in his essay Early Victorians in the Field, the culture of early Victorian natural history was shaped by, and in turn shaped, the larger culture (Camerini, 1997). With the growing working and middle class people, the pursuits of science were made possible. There was a growing commercial trade in natural history specimens and the information was made easier to access. According to Harriet Ritvo, The global expansion of European influence in the seventeenth, eighteenth, and nineteenth centuries, whether by means of conquest, politics, or trade, was both mirrored and expedited by the efforts of knowledge workers (Ritvo, 1997). With more globalization, Early Victorian researchers, such as Charles Darwin and Henry Huxley, were able to travel with the navy on expeditions and collect specimens of species from around the world (Camerini, 1997). Natural histo ry was becoming a hobby of the masses as well as the scientists who specialized in it. In the chapter, Natural History and the Victorian Tourist: Form Landscapes to Rock-Pools, Aileen Fyfe studied the connection between science and Victorian Tourism. Before the Victorian era, travel and tourism was only for the aristocracy, because no one else had the money or the vacation time to travel, which could last from a few months to years (Fyfe, 2011). In the second half of the nineteenth century, there was a change in domestic tourism in England, when the working class were gaining leisure time and railways made travel easier and faster (Fyfe, 2011). With more tourists, the activities tourists could do changed and expanded, including interest in natural history. They were able to collect rocks, fossils, animals, plants that they sent back to England and these experiences led to their future research and discoveries. One of the most contested discoveries of the Victorian era is the theory of natural selection. Charles Darwin wrote about and described this theory in his book, On the origin of species by means of natural selection. Darwin lays out his argument explaining that there is variation of species around the world because of the struggle for existence that all organisms are faced with. Natural selection is therefore acting in the good of each being, leading to the success of the species that is best suited for its environment (Darwin, 1859). Species are not permanent and can adapt to survive in their environment. According to Charles Darwin, One general law, leading to the advancement of all organic beings, namely, multiply, vary, let the strongest live and the weakest die. (Darwin, 1859). His theory of natural selection contradicted many beliefs that were held at the time and revolutionized the species concept and it allowed for the theory of evolution. Evolution is the belief that species change throughout time and all living organisms evolved from the simplest forms of life. There were many objections to Darwins theory at the time of its release. Natural selection contradicted many beliefs that were held at the time, such as a great chain of being, the Earth was young, and that species do not change and are permanent states. Some argued against Darwins theory. In an article published in the Spectator, the writer intended to show how the broad facts of geology are directly opposed to natural selection (Objections, 1860). The writer argues that species have been constant for thousands of years, and as such they would never change no matter how much time goes by. Instead of natural selection, the article references creation as the source of changes in conditions and what allows old species to disappear and new species to form (Objections, 1860). Before 1859, creationism, or the belief that all organisms living originated from a single creation moment particularly of divine nature, was the common belief. Victorian England was a primarily Christian society, a nd many beliefs were rooted in religious beliefs, before scientific discoveries proved them wrong. The article mentions the fauna of the Mesozoic period, especially the reptiles from that By the end of the Victorian period there were two major versions of evolutionary biology: Lamarckism and Darwinism. While mostly accepted by scientists today, Darwinism was highly contended when it came out, with Lamarckian beliefs being the most influential competitor (Fichman, 1997). Lamarck was the first to come up with an idea of species change, known as: the theory of acquired characteristics. Progressionism was the center of Lamarkism, since traits were acquired by an animals intentional actions and that trait could be inherited by future generations (Fichman, 1997). Organisms would therefore always be changing in response to their environment to become better suited for it. When the theory of evolution by natural selection came out, it also suggested progressionism. Instead of acquired characteristics, Darwin and Wallace believed in the appearance of random variations in nature, which were then sorted by natural selection based on whether the variation assists a species or not . The traits were inheritable, not acquired. Without the knowledge of genetics and mutations of genes, Lamarkism seemed more plausible, which allowed that theory to maintain its popularity and be discussed throughout the Victorian period (Fichman, 1997). In the 1870s and 1880s, Darwinism, the belief in Darwins theory of natural selection, was growing in influence. This lead to the theory of evolution needing to reconciled with Christian doctrine. For example, Reverend Thomas Roscoe Rede Stebbing wrote on Darwinism, natural history, and theology, including Essays on Darwinism published in 1871, and his religious beliefs changed to be consistent with the logic of science, but its roots were transcendental, emanating from a god of love and unselfishness' (Beckett, 2011). He used Darwinism to explain the origin of human morality as well as some tenets of the church. Religious beliefs needed to be altered and texts needed to be interpreted differently so that they could be reconciled with the discoveries of science, such as evolution. After Darwin, the shift of study went from collecting to identifying types, with a growing interest in conservation nature. The study of natural history at the time was very much tied together with other studies such as antiquarian and archaeological investigation, and there was never any clear distinction. The link between these studies was also tied with religion, because they looked at history as a combination of nature and human history. History before man, or at least before man left records, was the history of nature (Beckett, 2011). The focus of natural history studies was collecting and classifying throughout the nineteenth century. By the Victorian time period in England, popular interest in the geology and landscape was wide spread. Both amateurs and professionals were interested in the natural sciences, and began looking at, collecting and studying plants, animals, rock and fossils. In the Victorian era, there was an increase in interest and understanding of animals from the past, including dinosaurs and their reptile relatives. In the year 1841, Richard Owen was the man to define the category of large terrestrial reptiles, that he called Dinosauria. He focused his research on paleontology, and worked on new species as they emerged. This group was known for having an open acetabulum in the pelvis. When these fossils were first found, there was the belief by members of the church that the fossils were created by God as fossils and that the beings were never alive. Palaentology though shows who life and death have gone on for thousands of years and in many different forms (Owen, 1860). Owen separated the Paleozoic into three periods, where different groups of animals dominated the landscape: the first by the fish, the second by the reptiles, and the third by the mammals (Owen, 1860). Even so, he believed the differences were not necessarily chronological changes b ut geographical ones, since the different periods were seen in different locations. Owen quotes Cuviers theories of that no parts of an organism without also changing other parts (Owen, 1860). Owen did not believe in Darwins theory of evolution by natural selection. Tracing species back in time is a way to understand the way the earth was at that time. Owen did predict that Archeopteryx was a bird-like species, but made predictions about the face including that the mouth was devoid of lips, and was a beak-like instrument which was proven incorrect with the discover of other forms (Owen, 1863). Owen revolutionized the study of fossils but was incorrect in his believes regarding evolution. While he did not know that modern birds are the descendants of theropod dinosaurs, he did believe that bird forms would have been founded as old as the Triassic. Owen wrote, No actual remains of birds have been found in any deposit older than the chalk, yet their their existence long ages previous to this is certified to us by footprints in the sandstones of the Triassic or Liassic period, which cannot by any possibility have been made by any other animals (Owen, 1860). Owen would not have believed though that the modern bird forms were at all related to non-avian dinosaur forms. Henry Woodward also talked about the scarcity of avian fossils. He mentioned that it was believed that birds were around in the Jurassic due to the footprints, which is Owens prediction from 25 years prior, but he now argues that the tracks may have been left by Dinosaurian reptiles, which have a tridactyle hind-foot like a bird (Woodward, 1885). With new data and analysis, Woodward was able to adapt Owens t heory and get closer to the truth. He also did this with reconstructions of the Iguanodon, which originally discovered in 1825 and he talks about a previous interpretation done by a Waterhouse Hawkins and Richard Owen. The problem with the first reconstruction was the lack of knowledge and bones that were present for analysis with a discovery from 1878, which included multiple complete skeletons, they were able to reanalyze the bones and understand the specimen better (Woodward, 1895). Scientific discoveries throughout the Victorian era led to theories and predictions, which were either confirmed or denied with more research, as is the case with all hypotheses. Ideas from biology were not just being adopted by scientists and were also being used and translated to be used politically in the changing times of the Victorian period, due to their growing popularity. In 1883, Francis Galton termed eugenics. He believed that races of mankind could be ranked by how many individuals with high natural ability which he defined as intellectual capacity, eagerness for work, and power of doing superior work were born per generation (Fichman, 1997). When an inferior race came into contact with a superior one, it would be wiped away by the superior race. Eugenics was using Darwins theory of evolution by natural selection. Even so, it really was just a conservative aristocratic view of the world, which Galton attempted to use to create programs to limit the options of the inferior races. Huxley also played a large part in the connections between biology and politics. He worked to distance the ideas of evolution from ethical policies and sociopolitical disp utes by discrediting the belief that nature is moral (Fichman, 1997). In Victorian England, scientists, such as Huxley, Tyndall, Leslie Stephen, and John Morley, were able to create a largely secular climate of opinion in which the theories and metaphors of modern science penetrated the institutions of education, industry and government (Fichman, 1997). They worked toward social and material progress which would also advance science and technology, drawing the the attention of the all people. By the 1840s, scientific world was a modern professional community, with the professional scientist status rising (Fichman, 1997). This meant that evolutionary biology was becoming more well-known, even outside of the scientific community. Biology and science was on the forefront of politics and peoples mind. Since natural history gained popularity throughout the Victorian era among all people, the issues that were brought up by scientific discoveries and theories were discussed by all. Darwin in particular caused controversy in Victorian society, because the theory of evolution by natural selection shook the faith of the primarily Christian communities in England. Even though there were scientific theories before Darwin, his book was a turning point in understanding the world through religious beliefs and ideals. Science was in pursuit of the rules of nature, and while religion seemed to have already established them, new discoveries contradicted the ideas that most people prescribed to, such as a young Earth and immutable species. A growing interest in scientific theories and a decline in religion started in the Victorian era, with theories that began it prove religious beliefs to be incorrect. References: Beckett, J., Watkins, C. (2011). Natural History and Local History in Late Victorian and Edwardian England: The Contribution of the Victoria County History. Rural History, 22(01), 59-87. Camerini, J. (Ed.). (1997). Early Victorians in the Field. In B. Lightman (Ed.), Victorian Science in Context (pp. 354-377). London: The University of Chicago Press. Darwin, C., MA. (1859). On the origin of species by means of natural selection, or the preservation of favored races in the struggle for life. London: W. Clowes and Sons. Fichman, M. V. (1997). Biology and Politics: Defining the Boundaries. In B. V. Lightman (Ed.), Victorian science in context (pp. 94-118). London: University of Chicago Press. Fyfe, A. (2011). Natural History and the Victorian Tourist: From Landscapes to Rock-Pools. In C. W. Withers D. N. Livingstone (Eds.), Geographies of Nineteeth-Century Science (pp. 371-398). London: The University of Chicago Press. Objections to Mr. Darwins theory of the Origin of Species. (1860, April 7). The Spectator, pp. 334-335. Retrieved March 20, 2017. Owen, R. (1860). Palaeontology or A systematic summary of extinct animals and their geological relations. The British quarterly review, 32(63), 179-202. Owen, R. (1863). On the Archaeopteryc of von Meyer, with a description of the fossil remains of a long-tailed species, from the lithographic stone of Solenhofen. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London, 153, 33-47. Retrieved March 22, 2017. Ritvo, H. (1997). Zoological Nomenclature and the Empire of Victorian Science. In B. Lightman (Ed.), Victorian Science in Context (pp. 334-353). London: The University of Chicago Press. Thomson, K. S. (2008). Before Darwin: reconciling God and nature. New Haven: Yale University Press. Woodward, H. (1885). VI.-On Wingless Birds, Fossil and Recent; and a Few Words on Birds as a Class. Geological Magazine, 2(07), 308. Woodward, H. (1895). I.-Note on the Reconstruction of Iguanodon in the British Museum (Natural History), Cromwell Road. Geological Magazine, 2(07), 289.

Barclays: Matt Barrett’s Journey †Winning Hearts and Minds Essay

The fact that Barclays is one of the four most dominant retail and commercial banks in the U.K. says a lot about its reputation. This company has faced many challenges between the time periods of 1980-2000. Matt Barrett has several great ideas to turn this company around, and the factors that should be considered are essential to the success of his strategy. Social/Demographic The Company initiates good customer relationship skills. They have built personal relationships with one out of five personal customers, and have direct relationships with 25% of the businesses in the U.K. On the downside, the company’s cost base is much higher than its competitors. The plan is to change the core infrastructure of the company in order to build a stronger customer base. Becoming more competitive and offering value to its core products will give Barclays the competitive edge it needs to help increase profit and attract new clients. Technological Barrett and his Executive Committee (ExCo) team have plans to restructure the company by shifting its culture. In order to shift the culture, the mind-set of the employees has to change. Barrett promoted younger talent to join his ExCo team to give the company fresh innovative ideas. These new ideas will give solutions to replace the incompetence of traditional strategies that are no longer useful. The company also did an analysis on the industry and company data to figure out which segments were making money, and which ones weren’t. A value-based management approach gives the ExCo team an opportunity to take on challenges and risks, and make strategic decision about what segments to add, and what to take away. Economic Considering that Barclays is a reputable company, and the fact that an estimated 20% of its profits are generated outside of the U.K; it would be ideal for the company to expand to gain exposure. The company is the ninth largest bank in Europe, and already has a customer base in the country. Developing a second home market in continental Europe would allow the company to create a larger customer base, therefore increasing profit. Environmental/Geographic Barclays is located in a stable economy with a strong domestic franchise. The only crutch is that they need a strategy to compete with new entrants. The U.K. accounts for 80% of the company’s profit, so plans to restructure core products will require a dynamic strategic plan. Using diverse tactics to differentiate product/customer markets will help aid in maximizing the economic value of the company; and improving these products by offering value to clients will aid in creating a stronger customer base. Political/Legal/Governmental Barclays is the first foreign bank to file with the Securities and Exchange Commission in Washington D.C. This is an advantage to the company on a global scale because banking laws are enforced according to SEC regulations. On the downside, the company may be overlooked by firms who are looking to establish offshore accounts in order to bypass these regulations.

The Problem Of Democrats And Republicans Essay - 1583 Words

I have chosen the topic concerning the inability of Democrats and Republicans to properly reform the criminal justice system. This is an issue with nearly every topic and this is the main cause of issues in the country. The debates and lack of agreeable actions makes it seem nearly impossible for the country to change in positive ways in timely manners. This issue is the biggest issue in the United States of America, because it interferes with progress and reform. This is an integral part of why the current system remains in a dysfunctional state. This issues is more urgent than the others topics because if this issues is adequately addressed it has the potential to positively impact recidivism, bias and disproportionate incarceration among minorities, relational impacts for prisoners and many other issues. This will only happen if the political parties can come to a moral understanding and reform the system to promote growth and rehabilitation. The inability for the two parts to agr ee and implement positive reformations is the biggest issue for the criminal justice system because the only way the system will change is if there is agreeance for the need of reform. The current system is based on mass incarceration which was meant to keep more criminals off the streets and make the people feel safer. This approach has created more instability and discrimination. â€Å"Incarceration deepens existing inequalities and even creates new inequalities... especially for African Americans†Show MoreRelatedEssay on Analysis of The Party Is Over by Mile Lofgren762 Words   |  4 Pagesscreen. I believe this book was more for criticizing the GOP and Republicans that the Democrats. The GOP and Republicans are a lot different in politics now than they were decades ago. The book talks about how the Republicans are against the government, how Republicans are anti-science and anti-intellectual, and also how they view religious rights. 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The Legalization Of Marijuana - 1123 Words

This proposal would eliminate marijuana from the Control Substance Act and it would no longer be categorized as a Schedule 1 substance. The proposal would also require a federal permit for growing and distributing marijuana within state and national borders. The last aspect of the proposal would require for marijuana to be regulated exactly like alcohol by the Food and Drug Administration as well as the Bureau of Alcohol, Tabaco, Firearms, and Explosives. Both of these proposals are probable options for the United States, but the key question they must answer is: Should marijuana be a national issue or a states issue? When discussing current marijuana policy they are certain rules put in place, which criminalize marijuana. Stone states†¦show more content†¦All of these factors cause a negative reaction by the public because they begin to feel untrustworthy of their national government and it makes even more difficult to enforce these rules. The United States must change thei r marijuana policy (rules) to something that utilizes proper scientific research; so the public can feel that the rules put in place have some legitimacy. Even if they don’t completely agree with the policy, they will have to at least perceive the law in a more positive light. One example is the restriction of texting while you drive; there is a portion of the public that doesn’t agree with this policy, but at the very least they are able to view the legitimacy of it because of the proper research that is utilized. So the national government should ask itself, if their current marijuana policy has a level of legitimacy? At the very least another question that could be asked is whether or not we have the natural right to have access to medical marijuana. 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